Kremlin critic Alexey Navalny will remain behind bars after a Russian court partially rejected his appeal over a two-and-a-half year prison sentence handed down earlier this month. The court did shorten the activist's sentence by a month
Showing posts with label World. Show all posts
Showing posts with label World. Show all posts
Saturday, February 20
Boris Johnson's government is 'gaslighting' Britain about the realities of Brexit, critics say
London (CNN)Andy Trust has been exporting fish from Cornwall to continental Europe for 20 years. However, the past seven weeks have given him cause to contemplate shutting down the entire European operation of his fish merchants, Ocean Harvest.
Friday, February 19
Gujranwala police catch two suspects in Pakistan's first Bitcoin robbery case
GUJRANWALA: Two men have been arrested in Gujranwala for their involvement in what is being reported as Pakistan's first Bitcoin robbery. Two foreign nationals visiting Lahore on business had been taken hostage at gunpoint by the suspects.
Thursday, February 18
Nine News Melbourne newsreader Peter Hitchener to celebrate his 75th birthday
Nine News Melbourne newsreader Peter Hitchener will celebrate his 75th birthday at the weekend, however it will be a "quiet" day of celebrations as Victoria remains bound by COVID-19 restrictions. The legendary newsreader said he was looking forward
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Melbourne's Moomba festival to proceed after council backflips on its decision to cancel
Melbourne's beloved Moomba festival will go ahead with the council backflipping on its decision to cancel the event following community backlash. Melbourne City Council overturned the decision to cancel the iconic event today,
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Wednesday, February 17
'Terrified' UN envoy issues warning on Myanmar as protesters face down military
Concerns are growing over the potential for violence in Myanmar as anti-coup protesters urge supporters to take to the streets en masse, in defiance of the military generals who have deployed troops in major cities.
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Norway, the UK and Canada are not climate champions. They are climate hypocrites
In Oslo, the street lamps are powered by renewables. To conserve energy, the smart lights dim when nobody is around. The Norwegian capital, like the rest of the country, is proud of its exceptional green credentials.
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Tuesday, February 16
UK snow forecast: Britain turns BLUE as Polar blast from East returns - long-range charts
North-easterly winds from the Arctic are predicted to blitz the UK with wintry conditions over the coming weeks, potentially resulting in temperatures plummeting to a brutal -10C in Scotland. The latest snow probability
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‘Constellation’ of post-COVID symptoms will impact global healthcare
Far more research is needed into the “constellation” of sometimes debilitating symptoms among people who’ve recovered from COVID-19, the World Health Organization (WHO) said on Friday, adding that it “will impact” global health systems.
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Ebola outbreak: WHO puts six countries on urgent alert as deaths spread
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has ut six neighbouring African countries on alert after a resurgence of the deadly virus. WHO's Margaret Harris said: "We have already alerted the six countries around, including of course Sierra Leone and Liberia, and they are moving very fast to prepare and be ready and to look for any potential infection."
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Singapore says Myanmar situation 'alarming', but no need for sanctions
(Reuters) - Singapore's foreign minister on Tuesday spoke out about "alarming developments" in Myanmar but said he did not support widespread sanctions on the country in response to a coup there, which could hurt ordinary citizens.
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Australian Prime Minister apologizes to former staffer allegedly raped in Parliament office
Canberra, Australia (CNN)Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison apologized Tuesday to a former government staffer who alleged that she was raped by a colleague in Parliament House two years ago.
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Ambulance crews report drop in Covid callouts in hard-hit Wales as vaccine rollout gathers pace
Cardiff, Wales (CNN)The bitter Cardiff cold, the dawn half-light, and the radio-static pulse of callouts are the same as every shift over the past year, but as paramedic Angie Dymott and her colleague Lynda Stephens climb into their ambulance one recent morning, something small, but vital has changed.
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Monday, February 15
Vaccine rollout is a much-needed win for UK after bungling its pandemic response
Basingstoke, England (CNN)Last May, Steve Bates' phone rang. The UK was in the midst of its first national lockdown -- there was a stay-at-home order, schools and most shops were closed, and experts were warning that a vaccine could still be years out.
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European stocks close higher on vaccine rollouts and recovery hopes; Vivendi up 20%
The pan-European Stoxx 600 closed up 1.4%, with media stocks surging 4.2% to lead the gains amid a sharp rise in shares of Vivendi. European stocks received a positive handover from Asia-Pacific. Japan’s Nikkei 225 surged past the 30,000 level
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Wednesday, February 10
Unions demand more female representation in Japan media top jobs after sexism controversy
TOKYO -- Media-related labor unions, including the Japan Federation of Newspaper Workers' Unions (Shimbun Roren), revealed on Feb. 9 that they have asked their affiliates to up the proportion of women occupying executive positions.
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Tuesday, February 2
Capt. Tom Moore, a UK veteran who raised millions by walking in his garden, dies at 100
LONDON – Capt. Tom Moore, the World War II veteran who walked into the hearts of a nation in lockdown as he shuffled up and down his garden to raise money for health care workers, has died after testing positive for COVID-19. He was 100.
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Wednesday, March 2
World
In a philosophical context it may refer to the Universe, everything that constitutes reality. In a theological context, world usually refers to the material or the profane sphere, as opposed to the celestial, spiritual, transcendent or sacred. The "end of the world" refers to scenarios of the final end of human history, often in religious contexts.
World history is commonly understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia, from the first civilizations to the present.
World population is the sum of all human populations at any time; similarly, world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies (all countries), especially in the context of globalization. Terms like world championship, gross world product, world flags etc. also imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states.
In terms such as world religion, world language and world war, world suggests international or intercontinental scope without necessarily implying participation of the entire world.
In terms such as world map and world climate, world is used in the sense detached from human culture or civilization, referring to the planet Earth physically.
Etymology and usage
The English word world comes from the Old English weorold (-uld), weorld, worold (-uld, -eld), a compound of wer "man" and eld "age," which thus means roughly "Age of Man." The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *wira-alđiz, also reflected in Old Saxon werold, Old High German weralt, Old Frisian warld and Old Norse verǫld (whence the Icelandic veröld).
The corresponding word in Latin mundus, literally "clean, elegant", itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos "orderly arrangement." While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos.
'World' distinguishes the entire planet or population from any particular country or region: world affairs pertain not just to one place but to the whole world, and world history is a field of history that examines events from a global (rather than a national or a regional) perspective. Earth, on the other hand, refers to the planet as a physical entity, and distinguishes it from other planets and physical objects.
'World' can also be used attributively, to mean 'global', 'relating to the whole world', forming usages such as World community.
By extension, a 'world' may refer to any planet or heavenly body, especially when it is thought of as inhabited, especially in the context of science fiction or futurology.
'World', in original sense, when qualified, can also refer to a particular domain of human experience.
The world of work describes paid work and the pursuit of career, in all its social aspects, to distinguish it from home life and academic study.
The fashion world describes the environment of the designers, fashion houses and consumers that make up the fashion industry.
historically, the New World vs. the Old World, referring to the parts of the world colonized in the wake of the age of discovery. Now mostly used in zoology and botany, as New World monkey.
Philosophy
In philosophy, the World is everything that makes up reality. While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century and has been the subject of continuous debate. The question of what the world is has by no means been settled.
Parmenides
The traditional interpretation of Parmenides' work is that he argued that the every-day perception of reality of the physical world (as described in doxa) is mistaken, and that the reality of the world is 'One Being' (as described in aletheia): an unchanging, ungenerated, indestructible whole.
Plato
In his Allegory of the Cave, Plato distingues between forms and ideas and imagines two distinct worlds : the sensible world and the intelligible world.
Hegel
In Hegel's philosophy of history, the expression Weltgeschichte ist Weltgericht (World History is a tribunal that judges the World) is used to assert the view that History is what judges men, their actions and their opinions. Science is born from the desire to transform the World in relation to Man ; its final end is technical application.
Schopenhauer
The World as Will and Representation is the central work of Arthur Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer saw the human will as our one window to the world behind the representation; the Kantian thing-in-itself. He believed, therefore, that we could gain knowledge about the thing-in-itself, something Kant said was impossible, since the rest of the relationship between representation and thing-in-itself could be understood by analogy to the relationship between human will and human body.
Wittgenstein
Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case," wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1922. This definition would serve as the basis of logical positivism, with its assumption that there is exactly one world, consisting of the totality of facts, regardless of the interpretations that individual people may make of them.
Heidegger
Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". The world, for Heidegger, was that into which we are "thrown" willy-nilly and with which we, as beings-in-the-world, must come to terms. His conception of "the world-hood of the world" was most notably elaborated in his 1927 work Being and Time.
Freud
In response, Freud proposed that we do not move about in a common world, but a common thought process. He believed that all the actions of a person is motivated by one thing: lust. This led to numerous theories about reactionary consciousness.
Other
Some philosophers, often inspired by David Lewis, argue that metaphysical concepts such as possibility, probability and necessity are best analyzed by comparing the world to a range of possible worlds; a view commonly known as modal realism.
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(source:wikipedia)
Wednesday, January 12
2010–2011 Queensland floods
Three-quarters of the state of Queensland has been declared a disaster zone - an area larger than Texas and California combined. The 2010-2011 floods have killed at least 30 and the death toll is expected to rise.
Background
The floods were a result of heavy precipitation caused by Tropical Cyclone Tasha that combined with a trough during the peak of a La Niña event. The 2010 La Niña weather pattern, which brings wetter conditions to eastern Australia, was the strongest since 1973. Isolated flooding started across parts of the state in early December. On 24 December a monsoonal trough crossed the coast from the Coral Sea, bringing torrential rain that fell in a broad swath from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Gold Coast. The conditions also led to a large influx of snakes, as well as some crocodiles.
By 30 December, vast areas of Southern and Central Queensland, an area the size of Germany and France combined, were affected by the flood. About 300 roads were closed, including nine major highways.Coal railway lines were closed and numerous mine sites flooded. The floods have boosted fruit and vegetable prices.
Extent
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| NASA image showing swollen rivers and cloud cover |
While flooding has been widespread across Queensland, major flooding has mainly occurred in the three river basins.
Fitzroy River basin, including the Dawson and Nogoa Rivers
Burnett River basin
Condamine River/Balonne River basin, part of the Murray-Darling basin.
A later flood event affected the Mary River basin
Fitzroy River basin
 |
| Rockhampton seen from the air on 31 December. The Fitzroy River can be seen to have burst its banks. |
The flooding initially forced the evacuation of 1,000 people from Theodore and other towns, described as unprecedented by the acting chief officer of the Emergency Management Queensland. The military transported residents by helicopter to an evacuation centre at Moura.
Emerald was cut-off by road on 29 December as the Nogoa River rose. By the next day, the river surpassed the 2008 flood peak level of 15.36 metres (50.4 ft). At the peak of the flooding, 80% of the town was flooded, the worst the town ever experienced. 1,200 Emerald residents registered as evacuees.
Rockhampton had nearly a week to prepare for an expected flood peak from the Fitzroy River, which courses through the centre of the city.The airport was closed on 1 January. A metal flood barrier was erected around the terminal to prevent flood-borne debris from causing damage to the structure. An evacuation centre was set up at the Central Queensland University. The Bruce Highway leading south out of Rockhampton was closed to traffic. The river peaked at 9.2 metres (30 ft) just short the of the predicted 9.4 metres (31 ft) maximum.
The Port of Gladstone reduced its export capacity because the coal stockpiles at the port were saturated and further coal deliveries could not be made by rail. The Goonyella railway line which services a number of coal mines in the Bowen Basin was closed for one week and shipments of grain were also delayed.
Burnett River basin
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| The swollen Burnett River at Gayndah, 350 kilometres (220 mi) north west of Brisbane. |
The central Burnett towns of Gayndah and Mundubbera saw major flooding on 28–29 December. The Burnett River peaked at 18.25 metres (59.9 ft) at Mundubbera—the highest river height since 1942—inundating more than 20 houses. Downstream at Gayndah, the river peaked at 16.1 metres (53 ft) with floodwaters reaching two houses. Both towns were isolated for several days and there was major disruption to the potable water supply and local agricultural production.
Bundaberg experienced severe flooding, the worst in 40 years, after the Burnett River flooded the city. Floodwater forced 300 households to leave their homes.
Condamine/Balonne River basin
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| Churchill Drive flooded in Warwick |
Chinchilla and Jericho were also inundated. At least 40 residents were evacuated from Chinchilla.
Flooding in Dalby was the worst since 1981. The town's water purification system was flooded, resulting in water restrictions that have hampered clean-up efforts. 112,500 litres (24,700 imp gal; 29,700 U.S. gal) of water were transported to the town of 14,000 residents. Warwick was isolated when all roads into the town were cut-off.
The Condamine River reached 14.25 metres (46.8 ft) on 30 December, its highest level ever recorded. Condamine was mandatorily evacuated on 30 December.
Floodwaters are passing downstream along the Balonne River and threaten the towns of Surat and St George. The river is expected to peak at 12.5 metres (41 ft) at Surat and 14 metres (46 ft) at St George. The New South Wales towns of Angledool, Goodooga and Weilmoringle are expected to be isolated when floodwaters from the Balonne reach the Culgoa and Bokhara Rivers.
A second rain event on 9–10 January saw floodwaters again threaten Chinchilla and Condamine with Chinchilla residents again asked to evacuate.
Mary River basin
Heavy rain in the Mary River catchment on 8–9 January 2011 lead to flooding at Maryborough and Gympie. The Mary River at Maryborough was expected to initially peak at 8.5 metres (28 ft) at midday 9 January with some houses and businesses inundated. A second peak is expected to arrive from rain falling upstream later that day. At Gympie, the Mary River is expected to peak at 16 metres (52 ft), possibly increasing to 17 metres (56 ft)—over the major flood level—if rain continues to fall.
Toowoomba flash flood
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| Long and Mackenzie Streets in Toowoomba flooded |
In the Darling Downs, the city of Toowoomba was hit by flash flooding after more than 160 millimetres (6.3 in) of rain fell in 36 hours to 10 January 2011; this event caused four deaths in a matter of hours. Toowoomba sits on the watershed of the Great Dividing Range, some 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. A three week period where it had rained on all but three days had left the soil around Toowoomba saturated and when a line of storms hit the city on 10 January, the resulting torrential rain rapidly ran off down gullies and streets. The central business district of the city sits in a small valley where two small water courses—East Creek and West Creek—meet to form Gowrie Creek. Unable to cope with the volume of water heading toward them, the creeks burst their banks, pushing a devastating wall of water through the city centre.
Nearby Gatton saw voluntary evacuations as the Lockyer Creek rose to a record height of 18.92 metres (62.1 ft), exceeding the previous record set in the 1893 Queensland floods. The surge passed through the Lockyer Valley town of Withcott, where the force of the water pushed cars into shops and forcing the evacuation of hundreds of people. The scene was described by an onlooker as "like Cyclone Tracy has gone through it ... If you dropped an atom bomb on it, you couldn't tell the difference." Grantham was also hit hard by the flooding rains. Houses were left crumpled by what Premier of Queensland Anna Bligh described as an "inland tsunami". Nine people were confirmed dead, with the toll expected to double that figure, and 66 were missing.
Brisbane River catchment
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| Wheel of Brisbane during the floods |
On 11 January 2011 at around 2:30 p.m. EST, the Brisbane River broke its banks leading to evacuations in the Brisbane CBD and the suburbs of Fortitude Valley and West End. An evacuation centre was established for flood-affected residents at the RNA Showgrounds in Bowen Hills. According to media outlets, most of Brisbane had been evacuated prior to the arrival of floods, which struck the city on 12 January. Brisbane Mayor Campbell Newman stated than an estimated 20,000 homes would be affected when the river peaks on 14 January.
The Bremer River at Ipswich—30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Brisbane—reached a height of 19.4 metres (64 ft) on 12 January, inundating the central business district and at least 3,000 houses. One third of the city was said to be underwater and over 1100 people had taken shelter at evacuation centres. At nearby Marburg, a 4 year old boy was swept away by floodwaters when he fell from a rescue boat. A man in his 50s died when he accidentally drove into floodwaters in the Ipswich suburb of Wulkuraka. The worst affected areas of Ipswich were the suburbs of Goodna and Gailes.
Elsewhere
In South East Queensland, the Wivenhoe Dam filled to a level equivalent to 191% of its supply capacity on 11 January 2011. Brisbane experienced its wettest December since 1859. Wyaralong Dam, near Beaudesert, had recently been completed and is receiving praise for mitigating flooding in downstream Logan, having exceeded 80% of its capacity.
In North Queensland, the town of Ingham became isolated as the Herbert River peaked. Homes at Babinda, and Gordonvale were flooded.
Deaths
As of 13 January 2011, 30 deaths have been attributed to the floods - of the 30 deaths, 13 are from the Toowoomba and the Lockyer Valley area. Additionally, at least 70 people are listed as missing, with grave concerns for 12 people, after a catastrophic flash flood struck Toowoomba and the Lockyer Valley.
The first death was reported on 20 November 2010, when a woman drowned in her vehicle near Dysart. In the following weeks, five others died from the same circumstance.
In addition, nine people drowned from being caught directly by the flowing waters. Another thirteen people died from other circumstances.
Response
This section requires expansion.
Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard toured flood-affected areas on 31 December, the day before the Queen of Australia, Elizabeth II, sent her expressions of concern and sympathy for the victims of the floods to her representative in Queensland, Governor Penelope Wensley. Around 80 military personnel have been engaged in flood-relief activities.
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated, "On behalf of President Obama and the people of the United States, I offer my condolences for the loss of life and damage in Queensland caused by the recent flooding."U.S. President Barack Obama said he was ready to help.
The Australian Defence Force established Joint Task Force 637, based at Enoggera Barracks in Brisbane, for operational command of flood relief assistance. It comprised personnel from all three services, including reservists. RAAF C-130 Hercules aircraft were used to transport supplies to Rockhampton, Emerald, St George and Mackay. Australian Army Black Hawk and Chinook helicopters and Royal Australian Navy Sea King helicopters were used for relief operations and aeromedical evacuations.
Food supplies to northern Queensland have been disrupted requiring groceries to be transported to Townsville by ship.
About 35 State Emergency Service personnel from New South Wales and 20 personnel from Victoria were deployed to provide relief to exhausted staff and volunteers. A national appeal was established on 29 December, with the state and federal governments giving A$1 million each.
Small businesses and primary producers in 13 local government areas became eligible for grants of up to A$25,000 to pay for costs from damage incurred as a result of the floods. National Disaster Relief and Recovery Arrangements were made available to a total of 31 local government areas across Queensland.
Major General Michael Slater was appointed head of the recovery task force.
On 9 January, the Flood Relief Appeal: Australia Unites telethon broadcast by the Nine Network from Brisbane's Suncorp Piazza raised more than A$10 million in pledged aid.
See also
(source:wikipedia)
Friday, November 26
Citizenship
Citizenship is the state of being a citizen of a particular social, political, or national community.
Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities. "Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public , volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, schools in some countries provide citizenship education. Citizenship was equated by Virginia Leary (1999) as connoting "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations."
The group of all citizens is the Citizenry.
National citizenship
Generally citizenship is seen as the relationship between an individual and a particular nation. In ancient Greece, the main political entity was the city-state, and citizens were members of particular city-states. In the past five hundred years, with the rise of the nation-state, citizenship is most closely identified with being a member of a particular nation. To some extent, certain entities cross national boundaries such as trade organizations, non-governmental organizations as well as multi-national corporations, and sometimes the term "citizen of the world" applies in the sense of people having less ties to a particular nation and more of a sense of belonging to the world in general.
In modern times, citizenship policy is divided between jus sanguinis ("right of blood") and jus soli ("right of soil") nations. A jus sanguinis policy grants citizenship based on ancestry or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of a nation state common in Europe. A jus soli policy grants citizenship to anyone born on the territory of the state, a policy practiced by many countries in the Americas, including the United States. Many countries have a hybrid birthright requirement of local nativity and citizenship of at least one parent.
Citizenship can also commonly be obtained through marriage to a person holding the citizenship (jure matrimonii), or through naturalization .
Further information: Nationality law
Supranational citizenship
In recent years, some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship.
Commonwealth citizenship
The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries:
Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries.
In some Commonwealth countries resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election.
In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except for certain specific positions (e.g. defense, Governor-General or President, Prime Minister).
Although Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1949, it is often treated as if it were a member, with references being made in legal documents to 'the Commonwealth and the Republic of Ireland', and its citizens are not classified as foreign nationals, particularly in the United Kingdom.
Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship (However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth; Murray v Parkes [1942] All ER 123). The Canadian Citizenship Act which came into effect on January 1, 1947 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada (with certain exceptions) and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other Dominions adopted this principle, in New Zealand, in the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizenship has replaced allegiance, a more than symbolic change.
Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy a special provincial citizenship within Finland, hembygdsrätt.
The United States has a system of dual citizenship where one is a citizen of the state of residence as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what are granted under the US Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service (each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, while some maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization).
European Union (EU) citizenship
Main article: Citizenship of the European Union
The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the amended EC Treaty states that
Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship.
The amended EC Treaty establishes certain minimal rights for EU citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guarantees a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provides a limited right to free movement and residence in Member States other than that of which the EU citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights.
Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States (Articles 39, 43, 49 EC), which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.
History
The concept of citizenship arose with the first laws.
Polis citizenship
Main article: Polis
The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. In those days citizenship was not seen as a public matter, separated from the private life of the individual person. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one’s everyday life in the polis. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: “To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!” This form of citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.
However, an important aspect of polis citizenship was exclusivity. Citizenship in ancient Greece and Rome, as well as Medieval cities that practiced polis citizenship, was exclusive and inequality of status was widely accepted. Citizens had a much higher status than non-citizens: Women, slaves or ‘barbarians’. For example, women were seen to be irrational and incapable of political participation (although some, most notably Plato, disagreed). Methods used to determine whether someone could be a citizen or not could be based on wealth (the amount of taxes one paid), political participation, or heritage (both parents had to be born in the polis).
In the Roman Empire, polis citizenship changed form: Citizenship was expanded from small scale communities to the entire empire. Romans realised that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Citizenship in the Roman era was no longer a status of political agency; it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. (See Civis romanus sum.)
Medieval and early modern citizenship
During European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities, see burgher, Great burgher and Bourgeoisie. Nobility used to have privileges above commoners (see aristocracy), but the French Revolution and other revolutions revoked these privileges and made citizens.
Honorary citizenship
Some countries extend "honorary citizenship" to those whom they consider to be especially admirable or worthy of the distinction.
By act of United States Congress and presidential assent, honorary United States citizenship has been awarded to only seven individuals. Honorary Canadian citizenship requires the unanimous approval of Parliament. The only people to ever receive honorary Canadian citizenship are Raoul Wallenberg posthumously in 1985, Nelson Mandela in 2001, the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso in 2006, Aung San Suu Kyi in 2007 and Prince Karim Aga Khan in 2009.
In 2002 South Korea awarded honorary citizenship to Dutch football (soccer) coach Guus Hiddink who successfully and unexpectedly took the national team to the semi-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Honorary citizenship was also awarded to Hines Ward, a black Korean American football player, in 2006 for his efforts to minimize discrimination in Korea against half-Koreans.
American actress Angelina Jolie received an honorary Cambodian citizenship in 2005 due to her humanitarian efforts. Cricketers Matthew Hayden and Herschelle Gibbs were awarded honorary citizenship of St. Kitts and Nevis in March 2007 due to their record-breaking innings in the 2007 Cricket World Cup.
In Germany the honorary citizenship is awarded by cities, towns and sometimes federal states. The honorary citizenship ends with the death of the honoured, or, in exceptional cases, when it is taken away by the council or parliament of the city, town, or state. In the case of war criminals, all such honours were taken away by "Article VIII, section II, letter i of the directive 38 of the Allied Control Council for Germany" on October 12, 1946. In some cases, honorary citizenship was taken away from members of the former GDR regime, e.g. Erich Honecker, after the collapse of the GDR in 1989/90.
In Ireland, "honorary citizenship" bestowed on a foreigner is in fact full legal citizenship including the right to reside in Ireland, to vote etc.
According to the Chapter II, Article 29, Paragraph 'e)' of the Cuban Constitution, Cuban citizens by birth are those foreigners who, by virtue of their exceptional merits won in the struggles for Cuba’s liberation, were considered Cuban citizens by birth. Che Guevara was made an honorary citizen of Cuba by Fidel Castro for his part in the Cuban Revolution, of which Guevara later renounced in his well known farewell letter.
Historically, many states limited citizenship to only a proportion of their population, thereby creating a citizen class with political rights superior to other sections of the population, but equal with each other. The classical example of a limited citizenry was Athens where slaves, women, and resident foreigners (called metics) were excluded from political rights. The Roman Republic forms another example (see Roman citizenship), and, more recently, the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had some of the same characteristics.
Honorary citizenship around the world
Berlin · Canada · Revolutionary France · Gyumri · Hamburg · Paris · Schleswig-Holstein · Singapore · United States · Zagreb
School subject
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2010)
Citizenship education
Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for all pupils aged 11-16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level. All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in Citizenship to parents.
Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UKs relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.
In Wales the model used is Personal and Social Education.
Citizenship is not taught as a subject in Scottish schools, however they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues.
It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE).
Citizenship is taught as a unit as part of the curriculum in Grade 8 Social Studies in Nova Scotia.
Responsibilities or duties of citizenship
The legally enforceable duties of citizenship vary depending on one's country, and may include such items as:
paying taxes
serving on a jury
Voting
(source:wikipedia)
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