Mourning of Muharram

The Mourning of Muharram is an important period of mourning in Islam, taking place in Muharram which is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is also called the Remembrance of Muharram (Arabic: ذكرى محرم or مناسبة محرم‎). Many of the events associated with the remembrance take place in congregation halls known as Hussainia.

Shia Muslims in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania in a Majlis as part 

of the commemoration of Muharram,

The event marks the anniversary of the Battle of Karbala when Imam Hussain ibn Ali, The grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and a Shia Imam, was killed by the forces of the second Umayad caliph Yazid I. The event is marked by arranging 'majalis' (gatherings) to review Islamic teachings and to commemorate Imam Hussain's sacrifice. The mourning reaches its climax on the tenth day, known as Ashura, on which the forces of Yazid killed the 72 individuals who fought, including Imam Hussain and his family and supporters. The women and children left living were made prisoners and transported to Yazid's court in Damascus.

Etymology

Majlis in Dar es salaam, Tanzania,

The words Azadari and Majalis-e Aza have been exclusively used in connection with the remembrance ceremonies for the martyrdom of Imam Hussain. Majalis-e Aza, also known as Aza-e Husayn, includes mourning congregations, lamentations, matam and all such actions which express the emotions of grief and above all, repulsion against what Yazid stood for.

The term majalis has both a grammatical meaning and a meaning which relates to Aza-e-Husayn. In its technical sense, a majalis is a meeting, a session or a gathering..

Shia Muslims in Amroha Uttar Pradesh, India Children on camels in front of Azakhana or Hosania Juloos as part of the commemoration of Muharram

Background

Shi'a Muslims in Bahrain strike their chests during the Remembrance of Muharram.

The Azadari of Muharram was started by the family of Muhammad (the Ahl-ul-Bayt) after the death of Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala in 680 AD. Following the battle of Karbala, Muhammad's granddaughter Zaynab binte Ali and sister of Husayn, began mourning for the fallen and making speeches against Husayn ibn Ali's opponents: Ibn Ziyad and Yazid I. News of Husayn ibn Ali's death was also spread by Imam Zain-ul-Abideen, who succeeded Husayn as the Shia Imam, via sermons and speeches throughout Iraq, Syria and Hejaz.

Zainab and Zainu l-Abi Din informed the people that Yazid had martyred Imam Husayn and seventy-two of his companions including his six month old son Ali Asghar, and that their women and children were taken as prisoners to Syria. When word of mourning reached Yazid he decided to release the captive women and children from the prison in Damascus, out of fear of public revolt against his rule. He sent for Zainu l-Abi Din, informed him of the impending release and asked if he wished for anything further. Zain said he would consult with Zainab. She asked Yazid to provide a place where the people could mourn for Imam Husayn and others of Muhammad's household. A house was provided, and here Zaynab binte Ali held the first Majlis-e Aza of Husayn and started the Mourning of Muharram.

History of commemoration

Template:Shiism The mourning and commemoration for Husayn ibn Ali originated in Iraq, as this is where Husayn was martyred. However, they were held in Iran as early as the twelfth century, when both Sunnis and Shias participated in them. In the Safavid period, the annual mourning ceremonies for Imam Hosayn, combined with the ritual cursing of his enemies, acquired the status of a national institution. Expressions of grief such as sine-zani (beating the chest), zangir-zani (beating oneself with chains), and tage-zani or Qama Zani also known as Tatbeer (hitting oneself with swords or knives) emerged as common features of the proliferating mourning-processions (dasta-gardani). Mourning for the martyred Imam also takes place in assemblies held in buildings erected especially for the purpose, known either as Hussainia or takia, as well as in mosques and private houses. At these assemblies, called either rawze-khani (the recitation of Rawzat al-Shuhada by Hosayneciters and preachers would recount the deeds of the martyrs and curse their enemies, arousing the emotions of the mourners who responded by singing dirges at appropriate intervals in the narrative. Theatrical representations of the tragedy at Karbala (ta'zia)—possibly the most remarkable feature of the entire corpus of Muharram ritual—also made their appearance in the Safavid period.

Commemoration of the tragedy at Karbala reached its apogee in the mid-nineteenth century. By then it had spread across a vast area, extending from the Middle East and the Caucasus eastwards to India, Indonesia, and Thailand, and it had even been established in Trinidad by Indian Muslim migrants. In Iran, the memory of Karbala came to permeate social and cultural life, with mourning assemblies and dramatic performances (not all shias agree with the re-enacting of the tragedy of Karbala however) being organized throughout the year, not only in Muharram. The occasion might be furnished by the death of a revered person or the need to fulfill a vow. Gatherings known as sofra (lit. tablecloth), in which the preparation and serving of food played a focal role, were exclusively feminine: the preachers as well as the mourners were all women, and the lives and tribulations of women such as Fatimah and Zaynab were the principal topic of commemoration. Gatherings of this type appear to have originated in the late nineteenth century.

Azadari Movement in Lucknow

The Muharram, 1795: Asaf al-Daula, Nawab of Oudh, listening at night to the maulvi reading from the scriptures during Muharram, c.1795.

Lucknow is known as a seat of Shi'ism and the epitome of Shia culture in India. Muharram which is observed in Lucknow is famous worldwide. The processions of Muharram in Lucknow have a special significance. They were started during the reign of the Awadh Nawabs. The Majalises, processions and other rituals that are observed by the Shia community to commemorate the sacrifice of Husain are known as Azadari.

The processions like Shahi Zarih, Jaloos-e-Mehndi, Alam-e-Ashura and that of Chup Tazia have special significance for Shia community, which are taken out with great religious zeal and fervour. These processions which started during the reign of the Awadh Nawabs continued till the year 1977.

Processions Banned The first problem regarding Azadari started in the year 1906. Communal riots took place in the years 1968, 1969, 1974 and 1977. The Government of Uttar Pradesh banned the Azadari processions in the year 1977. The Shia community from time to time has been constantly protesting against the ban imposed on Azadari. Many memoranda were sent to the Government regarding the ban but to no avail. The system of courting arrest was also started later by the late Maulana Syed Kalbe Abid in which thousands of Shias courted arrest on the 10th of Muharram every year, at the Imambara Asifi in the protest of this ban.

Self Immolation On the 10th of April 1997 under the banner of Karvane Furat the Shias sat on a hunger strike to press their demands and attract the attention of the Government but the effort was in vain. Having been irked by the attitude of the Government and seeing that no other option was left for the community, three Shia youth committed self immolation on 13th of April 1997 at Dargah Hazrat Abbas (A.S.), Mohd. Abbas (24 years), Yusuf (38 years) committed self- immolation. They breathed their last on 16th April 1997 in Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi. On April 16th another Shia youth, Ishrat Altaf, committed self immolation and died.

Noted Shia religious scholar of India Kalbe Sadiq called on the community to observe a peace march on the 18th of April, 1997. A march was scheduled from Imambara Asifi(Bara Imambara) to Imambara Husainabad(Chhota Imambara) in which more than two hundred thousand Shias along with other Ulema participated. Imam Bukhari of Shahi Jami Masjid in Delhi showed his interest in negotiating the vexed Azadari issue and was expected to arrive in Lucknow on the 31st May 1997. On 3rd June he was arrested on the outskirts of the city. Along with him noted Shia Ulema, the Imam-e-Juma of Masjid Asafi, Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad and Sunni Ulama late Maulana Qamar Minai were arrested for organising a meeting and defying Section 144 I.P.C.

On hearing of their leader’s arrest, the Shias stormed the Vidhan Sabha (the provincial assembly of Uttar Pradesh state) and performed Matam. The Government Uttar Pradesh seeing the situation going out of hand was forced to release the leaders without further delay.

Indian Shiite Muslims take out a Muharram procession in Lucknow, India, Jan, 2007. Muharram is a month of mourning when Shiite Muslims recall the seventh-century death of Imam Hussain, grandson of Muhammad.

Police mercilessly beat Shias including women and children on 8th June 1997 in Muftiganj in the Alam procession. Upon knowing of this incident Maulana Kalbe Jawad called an emergency meeting of about 115 Shia Anjumans(associations) of the city. At the meeting it was unanimously decided that if the government did not lift the ban on Azadari by 24th June 1997 (18th Safar) the Shias would defy the ban and take out the Alam procession on the 26th of June 1997. The Administration and the government did nothing they imposed a curfew in the city on the night of 26th June 1997. The Chief Minister Ms. Mayawati issued a strict warning to the Shia community that any attempt to take out Alam procession would force the government to deal strongly with them.

The police sealed all the Shia dominated localities but ultimately Shia’s defied the curfew. The Government to save itself from an embarrassment transferred the then District Magistrate of Lucknow and issued the order for the arrest of Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad under National Security Act (NSA). The Administration on the 28th of June 1997 at 4:00 a.m. arrested Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad. He was sent to Lalitpur Jail while his family was incarcerated with the prisoners of TADA. News spread like wildfire in the city and the people again break the curfew. The police mercilessly beat them up. Shia women stormed District Magistrate residence and protested there. Shia youth performed matam at the Vidhan Sabha. People from other parts of the country also started lending their support to the Azadari Movement. There were also various protests and agitations reported from the different parts of the country against the arrest of Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad. Indian Shias residing in New York, Syria, Pakistan, Iran and other countries also protested against the Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad’s arrest.The situation went out of control and the Government was left with no other option but to release Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad. Finally he was released on the 8th of July, 1997.

Ban Lifted The Government assured the Shias that the Azadari procession problem would be looked into and solved in three months time and asked for all agitations and protest to be postponed till then.The Shias did so. Upon the expiry of the period of 3 months the matter was not solved and Maulana Syed Kalbe Jawad decided again to defy the ban on Azadari on 27th of September. The Administration, finally held rounds of talks between Shias and Sunnis. The Shias were successful in taking out the first Azadari procession in January 1998 (21st of Ramzan) with the permission of the Government. Today the Shias have been given nine processions out of nine hundred that are registered in the festival register of the Shias.

Types of Mourning

Marsia, Noha, and Soaz

Shia Muslims take out a Alam procession on day of Ashura in Barabanki, India, Jan, 2009.

How the event is mourned differs between different branches of Shia and different ethnic groups. The event is also observed by many Sunnis, but to a lesser extent, and as a time of remembrance, rather than mourning.

In the Twelver three traditional schools (Usooli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi), mourners, both male and female, congregate together (in separate sections) for sorrowful, poetic recitations performed in memory of the death of Husayn, lamenting and grieving to the tune of beating drums and chants of "Ya Husayn." Passion plays are also performed, reenacting the Battle of Karbala and the suffering and death of Husayn at the hands of Yazid. They offer condolences to Imam-e-Zamana also known as Imam al-Mahdi whom they believe will avenge the blood of Husayn and bring justice to the world.

Twelver Alevis also mourn, and they keep themselves from eating and drinking ("fasting") the first 10–12 days of Muharram. In this period, the Alevis wear black clothes, do not shave themselves and avoid any type of entertainment and pleasure. Originally, it was also forbidden to bathe and change clothes during this period, but today most Alevis do not follow this rule. This is called "Muharrem Matemi", "Yas-i Muharrem" or "Muharrem orucu". But because it is also called "fasting", many people falsely think that Alevis celebrate the Muharram. The definition of the "fast" in this connection is different from the normal type of "fasting".

The only Ismaili group which mourns are the Mustaali, who mourn similarly to the majority of Twelvers.

Tabuiks (funeral biers) being lowered into the sea at a Muharram procession in West Sumatra, Indonesia

For the duration of the remembrance, it is customary for mosques to provide free meals (nazar) on certain nights of the month to all people. These meals are viewed as being special and holy, as they have been consecrated in the name of Imam Husayn, and thus partaking of them is considered an act of communion with Allah, Imam Husayn, and humanity.

Muharram procession: Shia Muslims in Malir, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan flagellated themselves during the Moharram procession to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, grandson of Muhammad.

In South Asia, a number of literary and musical genres, produced by both Shias and Sunnis, that have been inspired by the Battle of Karbala are performed during the month, such as marsiya, noha and soaz. This is meant to increase the peoples understanding of how the enemies fought The Battle of Karbala against Husayn and his followers. In Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica all ethnic and religious communities participate in the event, locally known as "Hosay" or "Hussay"[citation needed]. In Indonesia, the event is known as Tabuik (Minangkabau language) or Tabut (Indonesian).

Ziarat Imam Husayn Shrine

Many Shia also tend to embark on a pilgrimage to the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala itself, as it is one of the holiest places for Shias outside of Mecca and Medina. Up to one million pilgrims a year visit the city to observe the anniversary of Husayn ibn Ali's death.  The shrine is located opposite that of Abbas ibn Ali.

Matam

Zanjir(Chain) used for 'Zanjir matam'

Many of the male and female participants congregate together in public for ceremonial chest beating (matam) as a display of their devotion to Imam Husayn and in remembrance of his suffering. In some Shi'a societies, such as those in Bahrain, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Lebanon and Iraq, some male participants incorporate knives or razors swung upon chains into their matam.

Taziya

Main article: Ta'zieh

Indian Shia Muslims take out a Ta'ziya procession on day of Ashura in Hallaur, North India

Indian Shia Muslims take out a Ta'ziya procession on day of Ashura in Barabanki, India, Jan, 2009.

One form of mourning is the theatrical re-enactment of the Battle of Karbala. In Iran this is called taziya or taziyeh. Theatrical groups that specialize in taziya are called taziya groups. Taziyas were popular through the Qajar dynasty until the early twentieth century, but the re-enactments slowly declined until they were mostly abandoned in the large cities by the early 1940s. Nonetheless, taziyas continued to exist in Iran on a smaller scale especially in more rural and traditional areas. Reza Shah, the first of the Pahlavi dynasty, had outlawed taziyas. Despite some attempts since 1979, Muharram processions and various forms of the rawza khani are still more common.

In South Asia where dramatic commemorations are less significant, ta'zīya came to refer specifically to the miniature mausoleums used in processions held in Muharram. It all started from the fact that the great distance of India from Karbala prevented Indian Shi'is being buried near the tomb of Imam Husayn or making frequent pilgrimages(ziyarat) to the tomb. This is the reason why Indian Shi'is established local karbalas on the subcontinent by bringing soil from Karbala and sprinkling it on lots designated as future cemeteries. Once the karbalas were established on the subcontinent, the next step was to bring Husayn's tomb-shrine to India. This was established by building replicas of Husayn's mausoleum called ta'zīya to be carried in Muharram processions. Thousands of ta'zīyas in various shapes and sizes are fashioned every year for the months of mourning of Muharram and Safar; and are carried in processions and may be buried at the end of Ashura or Arbain.

Shia Hadiths

A banner (alam) being carried in a procession during the Remembrance of Muharram in Bahrain.

Imam of Islam

Husayn

Muhammad said:

Surely, there exists in the hearts of the Mu' mineen, with respect to the martyrdom of Husayn, a heat that never subsides.

Muhammad said:

O Fatimah! Every eye shall be weeping on the Day of Judgment except the eye which has shed tears over the tragedy of Husayn for surely, that eye shall be laughing and shall be given the glad tidings of the bounties and comforts of Paradise.

Ali ibn Hussein said:

Every Mu'min, whose eyes shed tears upon the killing of Husayn ibn' Ali and his companions, such that the tears roll down his cheeks, God shall accommodate him in the elevated rooms of paradise.

Ali said to Ibn Abbas:

(Once when he happened to pass by Karbala), Isa (Jesus) sat down and began to weep. His disciples who were observing him, followed suit and began weeping too, but not comprehending the reason for this behaviour, they asked him: "O' Spirit of God! What is it that makes you weep?" Isa (Jesus) said: "Do you know what land this is?" The disciples replied: "No." He then said: "This is the land on which the son of the Prophet Muhammad shall be killed.

Reason for Mourning

Zaynab binte Ali Sister of Imam Hussain after Karbala vowed that as long as the people do not recognise the actual cause of Karbala, the followers of Hussain will continue to protest on the streets and in the dwellings as to what happened in Karbala. Though besides Sunnis several Shias do not know that it's a protest and invitation to people to come and listen to mourners as to what happened in Karbala.

It is believed by many that Hussain's journey to Karbala was to claim his Imamat over the people of Kufa who had written letters inviting him to Kufa. Where as per Shia's belief Husain knew he was to be killed there. He under took this journey to deny his approval or Bait to Yazid becoming Caliph and not to become one himself.

Shah ast Hussain badshah ast Hussain,

Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,Husayn ibn Aliحسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,African Shia Muslims ,Ahl al-Bayt أهل البيت ,Ahl al-Kisā أهل الكسا ,Battle of Karbala

,Day of Ashura (عاشوراء) ,Hadith of Mubahala ,Hussainia ,Karbala ,Maqtal al-Husayn

,Muawiyah I( معاوية ابن أبي سفيان) ,Mubahala ,Sahih al-Bukha

,Succession to Muhammad ,Umayyad Caliphate( بنو أمية)

,Yazid I(يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان)

(source:wikipedia)

Ta'zieh تعزیه

Ta'zieh (Persian: تعزیه) means Condolence Theater and Naqqali are traditional Persian theatrical genres in which the drama is conveyed wholly or predominantly through music and singing. Tazieh dates before the Islamic era and the tragedy of Saiawush in Shahnameh is one of the best examples.

In Persian tradition, Tazieh and Parde-khani, inspired by historical and religious events, symbolize epic spirit and resistance. The common theme is the hero tales of love and sacrifice, and of resistance against the evil.

While in the west the two major genres of dramas have been comedy and tragedy, in Persia (Iran), Tazieh seems to be the dominant genre. Considered as Persian opera, Tazieh resembles the European opera in many respects.

Persian cinema and Persian symphonic music have been influenced by the long tradition of Tazieh in Iran. Abbas Kiarostami, famous Iranian film maker, made a documentary movie entitled "A Look to Tazieh" in which he explores the relationship of the audience to this theatrical form. Nasser Taghvaee also made a documentary entitled "Tamrin e Akhar" on Tazieh.

Ta'zieh and Shiism

See also: Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali

The appearance of the characteristic dramatic form of Persia known as the Ta'zieh, in essence an expiation ritual, coincided with the emergence of Shiism. According to Ibn Kathir, it appeared in the reign of Mu'izz ad-Dawla, the king of Buyid dynasty, in 963. As soon as the Safavid Dynasty was established in Persia in 1501 and the Shiism of the Twelvers adopted as the official sect, the State took interest in theater as a tool of propagating Shiism.

Ta'zīya in India

Indian Shia Muslims take out a Ta'ziya procession on day of Ashura in 
Barabanki, India, Jan, 2009.

In South Asia, where dramatic commemmorations are less significant, ta'zīya came to refer specifically to the miniature mausoleums used in ritual processions held in the month of Muharram. As Indian Shi'a were not able to travel the long distance to the holy city of Kerbala, whether for burial or pilgrimage, they built replicas of Imam Hussein's masoleum in India, which they called ta'zīya, and carried them in processions. Thousands of ta'zīyas in various shapes and sizes are fashioned every year for the months of mourning of Muharram and Safar. They are carried in processions and may be buried at the end of Ashoura or Arbain.

The ta'zīya displayed by Nawab of Awadh during the Muharram used to be composed of green-glass, with or-molu(brass moldings). Some were of ivory, sandalwood, cedar or of wrought filligree silver. Those for the poor were used to be of coloured talc.

Numerous local traditions of ta'zīya construction have emerged over the centuries. Ta'zīyas vary in shape and size according to region. Although some were originally made of precious materials for royal and wealthy patrons, to be housed permanently, the majority of ta'zīyas are of kind of "disposable sacred art". Such disposable structures predominate on the popular level today. Materilas used to build ta'zīyas include wood and bamboo for the frame and paper, tin foil, mica and glass for the ornamental exterior.

In India ta'zīya tradition is not only practiced by Shia muslims and other muslims but also by Hindus. Even many Hindu zamindars were found to subscribe to ta'zīya tradition.

This art of a bamboo and paper mausoleum has reached Fiji and Trinidad and Tobago as Indians have settled there.

Takia

Like Western passion plays, ta'zia dramas were originally performed outdoors at crossroads and other public places where large audiences could gather. Performances later took place in the courtyards of inns and private homes, but eventually unique structures called takias were constructed for the specific purpose of staging the plays. Community cooperation was encouraged in the building and decoration of the takias, whether the funds for the enterprise were provided by an individual philanthropist or by contributions from the residents of its particular locality. The takias varied in size, from intimate structures which could only accommodate a few dozen spectators to large buildings capable of holding an audience of more than a thousand people. Often the takias were temporary, having been erected specially for the mourning of Muharram. All takias, regardless of their size, are constructed as theaters-in-the-round to intensify the dynamic between actors and audience. the spectators are literally surrounded by the action and often become physical participants in the play. In unwalled takias, it is not unusual for combat scenes to occur behind the audience.

Takia-ye Dawlat, the Royal Theater in Tehran, was the most famous of all the ta'zia performance spaces. Built in the 1870s by Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, the Royal Theater's sumptuous magnificence surpassed that of Europe's greatest opera houses in the opinion of many Western visitors. This takia was later destroyed by Reza Shah.,
Shah ast Hussain badshah ast Hussain,

Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,Husayn ibn Aliحسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,African Shia Muslims ,Ahl al-Bayt أهل البيت ,Ahl al-Kisā أهل الكسا ,Battle of Karbala

,Day of Ashura (عاشوراء) ,Hadith of Mubahala ,Hussainia ,Karbala ,Maqtal al-Husayn

,Mourning of Muharram ,Muawiyah I( معاوية ابن أبي سفيان) ,Mubahala ,Sahih al-Bukha

,Succession to Muhammad ,Umayyad Caliphate( بنو أمية)

,Yazid I(يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان)

(source:wikipedia)

Maqtal al-Husayn

Imam of Islam Husayn

Maqtal al-Husayn (مقتل الحسين) is a book which narrates the story of Battle of Karbala and death of Hussain ibn Ali. These books has written since the 8th century until now.

Maqtal

Monographic works, which recount the death of revered individuals, were composed in large numbers during the eighth and ninth centuries and even today among Muslims are defined as Maqtal.(Robinson,2003:34)

List of famous Maqtals

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abi Mikhnaf died in 157 AH (774 CE)

Maqtal al-Husayn, Ibn Sa'd died in 230 AH (845CE)

Maqtal al-Husayn, Baladhuri died in 892 CE

Maqtal al-Husayn, Dinawari

Maqtal al-Husayn, Ibn A'tham died in 314AH (926-27 CE)

Old maqtals that are not extant today:

Maqtal al-Husayn of Muhammad bin Amr Waqidi (d. 207 or 209 AH), a mention of which book has been made by Ibn Nadim and Yaqut al-Hamawi

Maqtal al-Husayn that was written by Abu ‘Ubaydah Mu‘mmar bin Muthannà (d. 209 AH) and which was in the possession of Ibn Tawus (d. 664 AH)

Maqtal al-Husayn written by Nasr bin Muzaham Manqari (d. 212 AH). This maqtal has been mentioned in the works of Ibn Nadím and al-Najashi.

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abi Ubayd Qasim bin Salim Hirawi (d. 224 AH)

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abi al- Hasan Ali bin Muhammad Madaini (d. 224/225 AH) a mention of which has been made by Ibn Shahr Àshêb.

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abdullah ibn Muhammad, known by his epithet of Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 281 AH)

Maqtal al-Husayn, Ya'qubi who has made a brief reference to battle of Karbala in his book Tarikh had also written a separate book under the name Maqtal al-Husayn.

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abi Abdullah Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Ghalabi (d. 298 AH)

Maqtal al-Husayn, Abi Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Shahanshah Baghawi Baghdadi (d. 317 AH) had also written a book called Maqtal al-Husayn 

See also

Hussain ibn Ali

Battle of Karbala

(source:wikipedia)

Succession to Muhammad

The Succession to Muhammad concerns the various aspects of successorship of Muhammad after his death, comprising who might be considered as his successor to lead the Muslims, how that person should be elected, the conditions of legitimacy, and the role of successor. Different answers to these questions have led to emerging several divisions in Muslim community since the first century of Muslim history; the most important of them are Sunnis, Shias and Kharijites.

A modern ambigram where the name Muhammad محمد in Arabic script is read as `Ali علي when rotated through 180°, and vice versa.

From a historic viewpoint, with Muhammad's death in AD 632, disagreement broke out over who should succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib), his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. None of Muhammad's sons survived into adulthood, therefore direct hereditary succession was never an option. Later, during the First Fitna and the Second Fitna the community divided into several sects and groups, each of which had its own idea about successorship. Finally, after the Rashidun caliphate turned into Monarchies and Sultanates, while in most of the areas during Muslim history Sunnis have held power and Shias have emerged as their opposition.

From a religious viewpoint, Muslims later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named his successor Ali at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him who had been determined by divine order.

The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shia claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims. Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imamate without this fighting .

Historiography

Historiography of early Islam and Hadith

Most of the Islamic history seems to have been primarily transmitted orally until after the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.

The historical works by later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Sirah Rasul Allah (Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or 767 CE). Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham (d. 833 CE) and Al-Tabari (d. 923 CE). Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. Studies by J. Schacht and Goldziher has led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. According to William Montgomery Watt, in the legal sphere it would seem that sheer invention could have very well happened. In the historical sphere however, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being made out of whole cloth.

Modern Western scholars are much less likely than Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. Western historians approach the classic Islamic histories with varying degrees of circumspection.

Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. The development of hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of Islamic history.There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.

The only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays or Kitab al-Saqifah which is written by Sulaym ibn Qays (death: 75-95 AH (694-714)). This is a collection of hadith and historical reports from 1st century of the Islamic calendar and narrates the events which relate to the succession in detail.

Succession to Muhammad from historical viewpoint

Election of Abu Bakr

After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. At a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah a companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself. However Sunnis allege that Ali accepted Abu Bakr, Omar and Uthman's subsequent leadership.

Most, but not all Shia, believe that following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr. There is not consensus among the sources about what happened next. Some sources say upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was disarmed by Umar and their companions. Fatimah, in support of her husband, started a commotion and threatened to "uncover her hair", at which Abu Bakr relented and withdrew. Ali, according to Shia, is reported to have repeatedly said that had there been forty men with him he would have resisted. When Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.

Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.

According to historical reports, Ali maintained his right to the caliphate and said:

By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.

The Sunni view of the succession

Sunni Muslims relate various hadith, or oral traditions, in which Muhammad is said to have recommended shura, elections or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community themselves would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia at the time. Some Sunnis argue that Muhammad had indicated his reliance upon Abu Bakr as second in command in many ways; he had called upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and to make rulings in his (Muhammad's) absence. There are some hadiths asserting that Muhammad said that some would be desirous of power but he knew that God (and the Muslims) would make Abu Bakr the next leader (see Hadith of the succession of Abu Bakr). Sunnis point to the fact that the majority of the people accepted Abu-Bakr as their leader as proof that his selection was wise and just.

A narration by Mousa Ibn 'Aoqbah in the book Siyar a`lam al-nubala (Arabic: سير أعلام النبلاء‎) by Al-Dhahabi:

...Then Ali and Al-Zobair said: we see that Abu Baker is more worthier to be the rightful successor of the prophet than anyone else...

Ghadir Khumm

 Hadith of the pond of Khumm

There is one hadith in the collection known as the Musnad which affirms that Muhammad made a speech at Ghadir Khumm, in which he said, "Of whomsoever I am the mawla, Ali is his mawla". The word mawla has many meanings in Arabic. In this case, say the Sunni scholars, Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some soldiers who had complained about Ali. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah; there Muhammad is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650)

The Sunnis argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. If Muhammad had wished to appoint Ali, surely he would have done so in Medina, in front of all the Muslim notables. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after Muhammad's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted his words as a binding appointment.

Muhammad's last illness

Muhammad asked permission from his wives to spend his last days with Aisha (his most beloved wife) and died with his head in her lap. Reportedly, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abu Bakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque as imam — a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community;

The events at Saqifah

General bay'ah

The original Medinan Muslims, the Ansar, held a meeting to discuss choosing a new leader among themselves, to rule their part of the community. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr argued that if the Ansar chose a leader, to lead the Ansar only, the Muslim community would split. The new leader must come from the Quraysh, Muhammad's clan; any other choice would destroy the community. Sa'd ibn Ubadah agreed to this. Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should choose either Umar or Abu Ubayda, as both were capable men of the Quraysh. Umar immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah (declared his allegiance; an Arabian custom) causing the rest of the men at the gathering to also give their bay'ah. Umar later described this process as a falta, a rushed and hasty decision. However, this decision would not have been binding upon the rest of the Muslims unless they themselves chose to give their bay'ah, which all save the supporters of Ali did. According to the Sunni, this is the proof that the decision was the right one.

Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr and Umar

Sunni accounts say that after a period during which he withdrew from public affairs, Ali eventually decided to cooperate with Abu Bakr and give his public submission. One version of the story is found in an oral tradition collected by Muhammad al-Bukhari.

Sunni accounts say that after giving his oath, Ali supported and advised Abu Bakr, as he did for the two caliphs who succeeded Abu Bakr (Umar and Uthman). They reject Shia views stating that Ali never gave his submission, or gave it only unwillingly and thereafter retired from public affairs rather than help those he regarded as usurpers.

Sunni attitude towards Ali

Sunni view of Ali

Sunni Muslims consider Ali as one of the prominent companions of Muhammad, among the ten, including Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, who were informed with the gift of paradise. They also consider Ali among the righteous caliphs and accept the hadiths narrated by him. They reject the Shia view that Ali considered Abu Bakr's succession undeserved.

The Shia believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.

Life of Ali

Ali was a leader in battle, and often entrusted with command. He was left in charge of the community at Medina when Muhammad led a raid on Tabuk. Ali was also his cousin, and the husband of his daughter Fatimah, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan and Husayn. Ali's father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.

The Qur'an

The Shia refer to three verses from sura Al-Ma'ida to make their argument on Qur'anic grounds: 5:55, 5:3, 5:67. They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm.

Hadith

The Shia point to a number of hadith that, they believe, show that Muhammad had left specific instructions as to his successor. These hadith have been given names: the pond of Khumm, Safinah, Thaqalayn, Haqq, position, warning, and others.

Many of these oral traditions are also accepted by Sunni Muslims. However, the Sunni do not accept the Shia interpretation of these hadith.

The following two hadith are most often referred to by the Shia, when arguing for the explicit appointment of Ali by Muhammad.

Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīrah - Summoning the Family

Islam began when Muhammad became thirty-seven years old. Initially, the mission was kept a secret. Then three years after the advent of Islam, he was ordered to commence the open declaration of his message. This was the occasion when God revealed the verse "And warn your nearest relations,".

When this verse was revealed, Muhammad organized a feast that is known in history as "Summoning the Family — Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīra". He invited around forty men from the Banu Hashim and asked Ali to make arrangements for the dinner. After having served his guests with food and drinks, when he wanted to speak to them about Islam, Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib forestalled him and said, "Your host has long since bewitched you." All the guests dispersed before Muhammad could present his message to them.

Muhammad then invited them the next day. After the feast, he spoke to them, saying:

O Sons of ‘Abdul-Muttalib! By Allāh, I do not know of any person among the Arabs who has come to his people with better than what I have brought to you. I have brought to you the good of this world and the next, and I have been commanded by the Lord to call you unto Him. Therefore, who amongst you will support me in this matter so that he may be my brother (akhhī), my successor (wasiyyī) and my caliph (khalifatī) among you?

This was the first time that Muhammad openly and publicly called the relations to accept him as the Messenger and Prophet of God, as well as being the first time that he called for a person who would aid him in his mission. At the time, no one but the youngest of them — Ali, stood up and said, "I will be your helper, O Prophet of God."

Muhammad then put his hand on the back of Ali's neck and said:

Inna hadhã akhhí wa wasiyyí wa khalífatí fíkum, fasma‘û lahu wa atí‘û — Verily this is my brother, my successor, and my caliph amongst you; therefore, listen to him and obey.

Ghadir Khumm

Hadith of the pond of Khumm

In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in which the traditions state that Muhammad said:

...for whoever I am his mawla, Ali is his mawla...

According to the Shia, this hadith, the hadith of the pond of Khumm, indicated the intent of Muhammad. They note that the translation of the word mawla as "friend" is highly unlikely and therefore misleading because: a) the word sadeeq is an appropriate, unambiguous and completely accurate translation of the word "friend". b) the connotations of the word mawla nearly always have an implication of a superior-inferior relationship. Hence, mawla can be taken to mean a variety of words in this context, such as master, commander or even slave, but friend is inaccurate. The Shia say that there were 120,000 witnesses to this declaration, including Umar and Abu Bakr.

Muhammad's last illness

Soon after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartment of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.

The Shia claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.

According to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas (cousin of Muhammad) Book 13 Hadith No. 4016, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. According to Sahih Muslim ibn `Abbas narrated that:

Ibn Abbas reported: When Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was about to leave this world, there were persons (around him) in his house, 'Umar b. al-Kbattab being one of them. Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: Come, I may write for you a document; you would not go astray after that. Thereupon Umar said: Verily Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) is deeply afflicted with pain. You have the Qur'an with you. The Book of Allah is sufficient for us. Those who were present in the house differed. Some of them said: Bring him (the writing material) so that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) may write a document for you and you would never go astray after him And some among them said what 'Umar had (already) said. When they indulged in nonsense and began to dispute in the presence of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), he said: Get up (and go away) 'Ubaidullah said: Ibn Abbas used to say: There was a heavy loss, indeed a heavy loss, that, due to their dispute and noise. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) could not write (or dictate) the document for them.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim

When Muhammad died, Umar denied his death stating rather that he would return back, and threatening to behead anyone who acceded to his death. Abu Bakr, upon his return to Medina, spoke to Umar and only then Umar did admit that Muhammad had died, this all was perceived by the Shia as a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and thus give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.

The events at Saqifah

When Muhammad died, his closest relatives, Ali and Fatimah, took charge of the body. While they were engaged in washing the body and preparing it for burial, a secret meeting, of which Ali and the Muhajirun weren't told, was taking place at Saqifah, which ended with Abu Bakr being chosen as the new leader.

Shī‘at of ‘Alī

Just as Ali had refused to give his allegiance (bay'ah) to Abu Bakr, many of the Muslims of Medina had also refused, thus they were known as: "Shī‘at ‘Alī" (the "Party of Ali"). It took six months of threat and pressure to force the refusers to submit to Abu Bakr. However, upon his refusal to give allegiance, Ali had his house surrounded by an armed force led by Abu Bakr and Umar.

In Madinah, Umar took charge of securing the pledge of allegiance of all residents. He dominated the streets with the help first of the Aslam and then the Abd Al-Ashhal of Aws, who in contrast to the majority of Khazraj, quickly became vigorous champions of the new regime. The sources mention the actual use of force only with respect to Companion Al-Zubayr who had been together with some others of the Muhajirun in the house of Fatimah. Supposedly, Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance to Abu Bakr.

Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatimah, who was pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shia mourn as Muhsin ibn Ali. She had been injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shia thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson.

Ali submits for the sake of his followers

Some Shia believe that Ali took pity upon the sufferings of his devoted followers and gave his submission, his bay'ah, to Abu Bakr, only after Fatimah, Ali's wife and daughter of Muhammad who was angry with Abu Bakr when he refused to give her right to the inheritance of the garden of Fadak. It may be because of the sake of unity that he might have helped them in matters of jurisprudence and administration but could never admit his obedience to them.

Other Shia say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.

Western academic views

Many contemporary scholars who have sifted through the early Muslim historical writings are proposing narratives that are closer to the received versions. In most cases, this has meant a swing back towards the Sunni version of events. However, one recent publication, The Succession to Muhammad written by Institute for Ismaili Studies in London's researcher Wilfred Madelung, ex Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shia narratives. On the right of Muhammad's household to succeed him, for instance, Madelung observes that:

In the Qur’an, the descendants and close kin of the prophets are their heirs also in respect to kingship (mulk), rule (hukm), wisdom (hikma), the book and the imamate. The Sunnite concept of the true caliphate itself defines it as a succession of the prophet in every respect except his prophethood. Why should Muhammad not be succeeded in it by any of his family like the earlier prophets? If God really wanted to indicate that he should not be succeeded by any of them why did He not let his grandsons and other kin die like his sons? There is thus a good reason to doubt that Muhammad failed to appoint a successor because he realized that the divine design excluded hereditary succession of his family and that he wanted the Muslims to choose their head by Shura. The Qur’an advises the faithful to settle some matters by consultation, but not the succession to prophets. That, according to the Qur’an, is settled by divine election, God usually chooses their successors, whether they become prophets or not from their own kin

Madelung writes on the basis of the hadith of the pond of Khumm Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.

Shah ast Hussain badshah ast Hussain,

Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,Husayn ibn Aliحسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب

,Ahl al-Bayt أهل البيت ,Ahl al-Kisā أهل الكسا ,Battle of Karbala

,Day of Ashura (عاشوراء) ,Hadith of Mubahala ,Hussainia ,Karbala ,Maqtal al-Husayn

,Mourning of Muharram ,Muawiyah I( معاوية ابن أبي سفيان) ,Mubahala ,Sahih al-Bukha

,Succession to Muhammad ,Umayyad Caliphate( بنو أمية)

,Yazid I(يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان)

(source:wikipedia)